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How to pronounce achromatic vision in English?

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welcome to lecture 5 of psych 49 81 on
the history of psychology title of our
lecture is testing early clinical
psychology and the barriers women faced
in psychology in this lecture you're
gonna see there's a theme of sexism or
what men also call patriarchy that kind
of filters its way through the topics
and also weaves itself into the time
period that we're covering during this
lecture we also learn about mental
testing which wasn't personality testing
like the phrenologist did but
intelligence testing and this and that
in turn fed into the eugenics movements
at the time and thirdly we're going to
talk about how American psychology
became more organized and accepted as
its own discipline now the first thing I
do is really kind of focus a little bit
on this mental testing idea and one of
the key people to talk about first of
all is Paul Broca whom we actually have
spoken about before when we talked a
little bit about his work on brain
localization and language he was a
French surgeon and neurologist in 19th
century Paris and he was like I said
very important in the way that he used
you know his methods of dissection and
so on to understand how language was
localized in the brain but yeah this
other big interest which was in
craniometry measuring the size of the
brain and relating it to intelligence so
what he would do is he would take
measurements of the head and the rest of
the body and then he would kind of look
at how the their sizes were linked to
their functions and he believed that
brain size was a good index of
intelligence and he concluded that men
on average are more intelligent than
women and this difference is greater
than it was in the distance past and he
based this on two sets of data that he
had his own autopsies that had conducted
across four Parisian hospitals there he
collected data on 292 men's brains and
140 women's brains he would weigh each
brained and he found that on average
men's brains were 181 grams heavier than
women's brains the second thing did was
he looked at the cranial capacities of a
number of prehistoric skulls that he had
at his disposal and he would measure the
cubic volume of these skulls and found
on
that in those prehistoric skulls there
was about a ninety-nine point the site
99.5 cubic centimeter difference between
men and women's brains and that the male
brains were larger than the female
brains he then looked at his
measurements of contemporary brain
volume and found that these differences
between the sexes range between 130 and
221 centimeters and he concluded that
the brains of these primitive people
were both smaller than modern human
brains and that the sex differences as
existed back then were actually
increasing over time so they're cut 3
under some thumps ins underlying broke
his work on intelligence and cranial
size first is here that mature adults
were more intelligent than the elderly
so he often found that elderly brains
were smaller than brains no mic more
middle-aged or younger adults
he believed that primitive people were
less intelligent than modern people and
that men were more intelligent than
women note that he didn't actually
perform any measures of intelligence on
any of these groups he just strongly
believed that the brain size must be
related to intelligence and so he's
making assumptions here that each of
these groups is different in their
intelligence based on their brain size
so kind of note the circular reasoning
here because any time we found brain
size differences between groups he would
say that it had something to do with
their corresponding intellectual
capacities if you asked him what these
differences in touch capacities were due
to he was they do to their brain size so
it's not really well-defined but this
kind of core belief that he had that
women were more intelligent than then I
say men were more intelligent than women
was quite keeping with the times of 19th
century France in fact this I hope aleef
about men's superiority over women this
patriarchy was really a popular notion
in France and you can see it in a lot of
writings of thinkers at the time so for
instance the painter Renoir known to be
quite sexist in his beliefs about men's
superiority to women for instance here's
a quote remember he says in ancient
times women sang and danced for free for
the pleasures of being charming and
gracious today it's all for money which
takes away the charm so he was really
against women being paid to perform
professionally
against him as scientists and many other
thinking patent professions here's
another quote this one comes from Gustav
Lebon in 1879 he was one of the premier
French scholars at the time and sort of
an early founder of social psychology he
says in the most intelligent races among
the rage the Parisians there are a large
number of women whose brains are closer
in size to those of gorillas than to the
most developed male brains so note here
that he's saying at this point they now
believe that some women's brains are
actually much larger than male brains
and because they're so big they're close
to the size of gorillas this Envy
already so in inferiority is so obvious
that no one can contested for a moment
only its degree is worth discussion all
psychologists who've studied the
intelligence of women recognized today
that they represent the most inferior
forms of human evolution and that they
are closer to children and savages then
to an adult civilized man they excel in
fickleness and constancy absence of
thought and logic and incapacity to
reason so here you have a scientist a
scholar who's saying that the day of
support that the fact that women are
inferior to men and so you can imagine
if you were trying to deal with issues
like women should have the right to vote
or should be able to have their own jobs
or whatever it was that you were arguing
for equality between men and women you
had people like Lebon and other scholars
arguing no the data don't support that
don't let that happen all right now
moving on a little bit into our to over
to the UK you know member that we talked
about Francis Galton back in lecture
three and how he had this preoccupation
with ranking people on all sorts of
different measures particularly for
their accomplishments and their believed
in what he believed was their genius and
he with his students even though he
wasn't really at a university developed
tests of intelligence that he showcased
for example at this International
Exhibition and what was called the
anthropometry anthropometric laboratory
where people could buy a ticket and come
in and get measured and then they would
use their data to kind of look at how
these different measures were related to
accomplishments one of the important
people who came to his lab was this
fellow James McKeen Cattell and I once
spent some time
talking about him because he turns out
to be a pretty important person in the
history of psychology Cattell grew up in
an intellectual family his father was
the president of a small college in
Pennsylvania after he had studied
philosophy for a short time in Germany
he returned to America and there he
entered Johns Hopkins University to
study philosophy on a fellowship and in
the second semester he was exposed to
the psychological methods of G Stanley
Hall when that fellowship was not
renewed at the end of the year he
returned to Germany and he sought out
vote at Leipzig and spent three years
with him in from 1883 to 1886 and earned
his PhD in psychology as the first
American student under Bunte after he
left Leipzig he then went to Cambridge
England and then enrolled at st. John's
College with the intent to study
medicine but was instead persuaded to
continue his work on the physiological
and experimental psychology that he had
started back at Leipzig he had met an
admired gulten while he's in England and
spent some time in this anthropometric
laboratory as an assistant and he
actually worked as a tester during the
exhibits they became interested in
Galton's investigations of individual
differences so he interrupted his time
in England for a return trip to Leipzig
in the summer of 1887 to visit Vint and
feckner and then he returned to the
United States to lecture at the
University of Pennsylvania in
Philadelphia and at Bryn Mawr College
where he was offered an instructorship
that had been arranged for him by his
father he returned for good from England
in 1889 to become a professor in
psychology at Penn and which he claimed
to be the first chair labeled simply as
psychology so he's claiming that this is
the first time a position was actually
designated as a professor in psychology
and this even happened before William
James got that this is kinda interesting
this kind of shows you some of the
topics that he taught while he was at
Penn you can see that he's got a course
called elementary psychology it's one
hour it meets at Mondays at noon he's
got a class called scientific methods in
psychology that's taught from Thursdays
from 3 to 6
he's got experimental psychology and
comparative social and animal psychology
I also like the fact that if you look at
the bat the bottom there he's got a
course called advanced psychology for
two hours on Saturdays from 11:00 to
1:00 so he was teaching classes on
Saturday now while he was at Penn he was
able to set up a laboratory and his
laboratory used a lot of the same kinds
of tests and instruments that he had
used when he was with Dalton back in
London here's an example of one of these
instruments he's doing a reaction time
experiment here it's good using a hip
Crona scope and what was called the
Cattell gravity chronometer and what was
going on here is at the time taking for
the subject was on the left to begin
reading a word displayed in the chrono
nominator it was being determined and
the hip chrono scope is started by the
dropping of the screen it stopped by the
subject reading the word aloud which
opens the lip key in the subjects mouth
so the person's got a little key there
in his mouth we can see it and when he
speaks it's actually going to cause a
little circuit to flip and then they can
measure precisely how long it takes for
him to read that word now cattell
developed other kinds of tests that had
been inspired by his original work with
dalton and i just wanted to give you an
example some of these other ones mental
testing by the way was actually coined
by him that phrase mental testing and he
pretty much devoted the rest of his
career on the development of measures of
individual differences and a lot of
these are like I said really similar to
what Gault Nadd these are by and large
measures that were associated with
psycho physics and quantitative
Experimental Psychology and probably
very few of them are actually going to
strike you as being intelligence tests
here's examples like for instance one of
them was the dynamo dynamo meter
pressure which was basically what you
could script squeeze your hand to see
how hard you could squeeze your hand
strength in the hand squeeze test called
rate of movement which was how quickly
your hand can be can move a distance of
50 centimeters so you just hold it in
position and then you quickly move it 50
centimeters how long does that take
sensation of areas was a two point
threshold how far apart on the skin must
two stimuli be to be tected as two
different stimuli instead of just one
pressure causing pain the amount of
pressure applied to the forehead
which the subject reports pain reaction
time for sound the time required to
respond to a sound judgment of time the
accuracy with which a 10-second interval
can be estimated and letter span the
number of letters that can be repeated
after hearing a series of letters maybe
that last one is not the only one that
seems like anything like what we might
call an intelligence test today but all
of these supposedly measured one's
mental ability or one's intelligence and
these are the kind of measures that he
developed and these tests that he
developed in at Penn there were other
kinds of instruments too and here's some
photos that I have of these these aren't
actually from his lab but these are the
kind of things that he had developed and
would been used by other people this
one's called the moss
ergo graph a narubu graph is being used
by this tester to measure endurance of
grip so you can see the boy he's got his
hand in something there he's gonna grip
onto something and this grip is thought
to be a measure of determination or grit
the ergo graph originally was designed
to study fatigue by Angelo mosso who has
been referred to often as the father of
sport psychology the boy's right arm is
secured to an armrest and he's using his
middle finger to raise and lower a
weight that is hanging almost to the
floor the pulley armed with a stylus and
scripts scraps carbon black from the
slowly moving chemo graph that the
tester is standing behind and this would
provide a permanent record of the length
and the frequency of the poles so he's
trying to pull his with just his middle
finger this weight up and down from the
floor here's another kind of mental
testing with what's called the wet
spirometer this instrument would measure
a vital capacity which was the maximum
volume of air that's exhaled after deep
inhalation yes can you believe that you
would take a breath and then exhale it
and as long as you as whatever it would
take for you to exhale that fully would
be what it was measuring and supposedly
vital capacity was related to age sex
and physical condition but at that time
it was also believed to be related to
intellectual status and the inner drum
the spirometer rises as the child blows
into the mouthpiece and then the level
of displacement can be read on a scale
the side of the instrument and then we
have Avalon etre the child here is
instructed to raise his heels a quarter
of an inch off the platform and the
indicator at the top of the upright
shows the elevation of his heels and
registers any tremors he has while he's
standing there on his toes when the
heels touched the platform as what
seemed to be the case in this picture
then a buzzer sounds and this test was
required to measure will and persistency
determination and pluck or spunk C's
were all measures the mental tests and
mental ability and again it probably
seems odd that this is the way they
thought about it but that's what they
did back then so he performed some
collaborative experiments on
psychophysics there at Penn and then he
left her a new position at Columbia
University in 1891 he spent the
remainder of his academic career there
and during the 25 years that he was at
Columbia he became the leading producer
of PhDs in psychology and some of his
noteworthy students were Woodworth and
Thorndike who will cover at a later
lecture however Cattell had to leave
Columbia in 1917 because he had frequent
arguments with the university's
administration especially over here the
drafting of inductees for World War 1 so
he was very much in against the
Americans getting involved in World War
one and I think what was happening at
the time was that the university was
trying to recruit the male students
there to join the army and they would
actually start to do drills and things
like this and he would constantly argue
with the University and say you
shouldn't be doing this you should be
letting these students be alone don't
let them go sent off to the war and
because of that he was forced to leave
so he left in 1917 never to work in a
university again however he stayed busy
and did all sorts of things here's just
sort of a CV of other things that that
Cattell did for psychology both before
he left Columbia and after so for
example he founded the journal with
James mark Baldwin called psychological
review in 1894 and was the editor for
the first ten years and made it the
official journal of the american
psychological association
in which the presidential addresses
would appear from the beginning and this
basically went out more respect than
what G Stanley Hall had done with the
American Journal of Psychology in fact
even to this day psychological review is
probably considered the most preeminent
journal in psychology so if you get a
paper in psychology psychological review
you get a lot of kudos for that in 1895
he purchased the journal Science and the
ownership of this heel held on till
until after his death in 1944 in 1900 he
added popular science monthly to his
list of journals that he owned when he
sold its name in 1915 he replaced it
with something called scientific monthly
which later became a journal that
members of the triple AAAS aside the
Triple A s could choose as an
alternative to science in 1906 he began
what was called the American men of
science with 4,000 names it would
include women in it this is very much
like something that Francis Galton would
have started he introduced a method of
starring the most eminent people in
twelve Sciences in which psychology had
its share of stars fifty psychologists
among 1000 starred scientists in the
first edition and if in fact he included
himself as one of those 50 psychologists
he also introduced an order of merit
ranking whereby ten competent leaders in
each field of science would arrange the
workers in rank order and then he would
average the results to produce an
overall ranking this was done for 200
leading psychologists in 1903 in the
names with their scores were revealed
for the first time in his 1929 address
as the president of the ninth
International Congress of psychology
these were ranks in 1903 for the first
10 where James Cattell Hugo munsterberg
Hall Baldwin Tichenor Royce Ladd Dewey
and Jastrow so you see Catterick can
tell himself ended up in the top 10
although he was no longer affiliated
with Columbia after 1917 17 he kept
really busy with all these publications
he was not forgotten by the scientific
community in fact was elected as the
president of the triple-a s and this is
the American Academy for the Advancement
of science is probably the one of the
most prestigious scientific
organizations in the United States he
was their president in 1925 and he was
also like I said the president of the
National Congress in 1929 so his place
in the history of American psychology
isn't probably so much for these
scientific contributions that turned out
to me rather trivial the sense that
these mental tests didn't really do
anything but more because it was a role
in furthering the professional
organization of psychology in
relationship to these established
Sciences here's an example of him
serving on the Board of Trustees for the
Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC
so I got a little red box there Adam so
you can see what he's doing now the next
person I have on today's list of topics
I had our time figure out exactly where
to put him in he's kind of important
he's not directly related to testing but
he's sort of an important key figure of
this era and that's Edward Tichenor okay
so Tichenor was born in England
Chichester England and then he went off
to Oxford between 1885 and 1890 after
that he went to Leipzig and he worked
both with Vogt and koopa whom we'll talk
about in another lecture he was offered
a position then at Cornell in 1892 and
he stayed there for the rest of his life
so Cornell universities in upstate New
York in the United States so you have
this Englishman who got a professorship
in psychology there and in 1895 he
became a full professor at age of 28
which was quite the accomplishment so it
just shows you how ambitious he was and
how qualified he was by 1900 he had
published more than 60 research articles
which is about 7.5 pubs per year since
he had started publishing now Tichenor
was known for school of psychology
called structuralism and the way he
viewed this was just like that biology
can be broken down into structure and
function in terms of anatomy versus
physiology he thought the same thing
could happen with psychology he said
those other people are interested in
psychological functions he called them
the functionalist Tichenor thought that
psychology wasn't really ready for that
yet it needed to make sense it didn't
make sense to study the function when we
didn't fully understand the structure of
consciousness so he thought it was
important first for psychology to be
focusing on structure and once we have
that all delineator to understand
the elements of consciousness then we
would be ready to study the functions
one of the caveats though he wasn't
actually really interested in
unconscious processes so you had to rely
on processes that the subject could
report on and that therefore favored
introspection is this method of choice
and of course that reflects the fact
that he had been trained by bunte in
Germany for his ph.d he that was very
important important for students and
researchers in psychology to learn the
right terms and and there was a lot of
training about the languages one should
use as a subject and Dada also was very
important to avoid what he called the
stimulus error which was to use words to
describe the object rather than one's
experience of the object so he's really
interested in your conscious process of
seeing an object and how it makes you
feel how it makes you you know what
tensions might be involved and so on so
that's what the trainings going to be
for introspection so once he kind of
like map this all out this this is what
he says is the domain of psychology at
least at this point in time
structuralism he then takes on next
phase of his life and becomes very
important in terms of teaching
psychology students so you can see there
he is in his home studio now he did a
lot of time working with his graduate
students spent a lot of time with him
working with the graduate students who
would bring them to his house and try to
get them to read a lot of different
things he would give them advice about
all sorts of different topics he even
put together a music group for graduate
students because he really wanted them
to live and breathe psychology and had
them come to his house for a lot of
their training so that was an important
way that he taught them was this sort of
creating a community of psychology
researchers
he also wrote a bunch of text books at
this time just example of some of them
the outline of psychology 1896 primer of
psychology 1898 for volume set called
experimental psychology between 1901 and
1905 lectures on thought processes a
textbook of psychology a beginner's
psychology and probably the most
important thing were these things called
the manuals in 1901 and 1905 and these
are laboratory manuals that would be
used
in a course called psychology laboratory
so it was very important in every year
of the one's psychology training that
the student would spend a lot of time in
the lab and to learn the methods of
psychology and these manuals were sort
of like the the Bible they would tell
you exactly how to do these methods
largely again focus on introspection is
the main method and how they properly
use the right words and so on in his
instructors manual he has this sort of
jokey thing that you can he said that
the teachers could tell their students
about how to fail their course in
laboratory psychology so these are all
things that one could tell the students
like do not accept any general
explanation under any circumstances
cherish the belief that your mind is
different in its ways from working from
all of their minds call upon the
instructor at the slightest provocation
if he's busy stroll about the lab until
he can attend to you work as noisily as
possible converse with your partner in
the pauses of the experiment upon
current politics or athletic records
explain when you enter the laboratory
that you have long been interested in
experimental psychology describe the
telepathic experiences or accounts that
aroused your interest and make it a rule
always to be a quarter of an hour late
for the laboratory exercises in this way
you throw the drudgery of preliminary
work upon your partner while you can
still take credit to yourself for the
regularity of your class attendance so
of course this is all very
tongue-in-cheek but you can see that
this is how his tone was in these books
and sort of sarcasm they would do when
he was trying to teach people the
methods of structuralism and methods of
psychology I should say more to the
point again you can see here's a picture
of a site of the psychology laboratory I
think at Cornell and how the students
would come there you can see the chairs
are down there in the bottom and so the
laboratory would be to to teach the
student how to actually use these
different kinds of instruments another
important thing that could that Tichenor
did was he created this group called the
experimentalists in 1916 for some reason
I'm not really sure why Tichenor never
actually went to the American
Psychological Association meetings never
was a president
but he did create his own society called
the experimentalists and you can see him
there in the front row he's the guy with
the big beard the sort of big guy third
from the left
and he's look holding on to a cigar one
of his students during this time was a
guy named boring and I mentioned him
before because it's such a funny name
but he became the first major historian
of psychology and so he would write
these big thick volumes on the history
of psychology and in those books he
would always regularly feature this
difference between structuralism versus
functionalism and as a result of that he
kept alive that division in psychology
even though structuralism was a school
of thought died out decades earlier than
that so for a long long time people
heard about structuralism not because it
was really an active part of psychology
but because it was in these books that
his student had made sure to cover that
topic in his books all right so there we
have to know like I said he's sort of a
little deviation from the rest of the
topics of today's lecture I want to get
back though to mental testing and this
time we're going to jump from the United
States over to France and go to alfred
Binet now in France there was a very
different approach to measuring
intelligence as opposed to gülten and
could tells method of these indirect
measures of things like you know you
know your physical strength and so on
Binet championed the direct measure of
complex mental operations now he was
born in Nice in france his father was a
physician as were both his grandfather's
because his parents separated when he
was very young his mother who was a
successful artist mainly raised him
initially studied medicine but he turned
to psychology instead and he began to
read the works of Darwin Galton's and
the British empiricist he never received
a formal education in psychology he
began his career in psychology though by
working with jean-martin charcot and
we're gonna meet next week he was a
famous psychiatrist neurologist in Paris
who was it this big Hospital in Paris
and so Binet went over there and started
working with him and while he was there
he conducted research on hypnotism using
magnets but his findings were later
found to be flawed due to the patient
that he was working with was being
highly suggestible and probably a lot of
characteristics were going on so sir
about a shame he had to resign his
position with Charcot in 1890 without
this professional position been aid then
direct his attention to the study of
intellectual growth and he did this with
his two daughters who were two and a
half and four and a half at the time the
tests he created to investigate his
children's mental operations were very
similar to those that Jean Piaget would
later devise in Switzerland he would ask
for example which of two piles contained
more objects and found that the answer
was not determined by the number of
objects in the piles but the amount of
space that the piles took up on the
table he also investigated how well his
daughters could remember objects that he
first showed them and then removed from
the site he also employed a number of
tests that had been used by Gault inand
can tell to measure things like visual
acuity in reaction time because he
thought some of these might really be
more related to mental operations so in
1890 he published three papers
describing his research on his daughters
and in 1903 he published the
experimental study of intelligence which
summarized his longitudinal study of the
intellectual growth of his daughter so
you can see here in this photo in 1891
he joined the laboratory for
physiological psychology at the Sorbonne
the majoring University in France where
he performed research in such areas as
memory the nature of childhood fears the
reliability of eyewitness testimony also
did work in abnormal psychology and
handwriting analysis he also
investigated the individual differences
in the perception of ink blots
long before the famous work of Rorschach
some some historians have argued that
Binet was the father experimental
psychology in France and had more of an
impact on American psychology than did
vote so they would say we should be
spending more time talking pop in a in
his influence than for instance the way
volge might have influenced the rest of
the world all right so again we're
bringing him up at this point because I
want to talk more about his tests of
intelligence so he had this colleague
Theodore Simone who was working as an
intern at a large institution for mental
retardation and the Aspen a to supervise
his doctoral research and Binet agreed
and
this is an opportunity to have access to
a large subject pool in 1899 Binet
joined the free society for the
psychological study of the child an
organization that sought scientifically
valid information about children
especially about their educational
problems and this is because in 1882 the
French government had mandated primary
education for both sexes ages six to
fourteen so now the sudden all children
have to go to school we're between the
ages of six and 14 both boys and girls
and as there's all that they have this
sort of new need to understand the
differences between these kids abilities
he wants they want to have a better
understanding of maybe some of these
children are having more problems than
other kids so like I said he was 1903 he
was appointed this government group to
study the problems of children who may
be and in the French schools so
they one of their immediate concerns
this be able to have a good way to
identify such children at the time
people were just sort of using
variations of Galton's tests to detect
mental retardation and Binet noted that
because of these tests the children who
were blind or deaf would often levy
often be classified erroneously as
having mental deficiencies so their
strategy was to identify a normal and an
intellectually subnormal group of
children test them in different ways and
determine what best distinguish those
two groups because of his early work
Binet believed that some of these tests
could focus on higher mental operations
so in 1905 Binet and Simone offered
their Binet Simone scale of intelligence
is a valid way to distinguish between
normal children and children with mental
deficiencies it consisted of 30 tests
ranging and difficulty from simple eye
movements to abstract definitions three
of the tests measured motor development
and the other 27 were designed to
measure cognitive abilities these tests
were arranged in order of difficulties
of the more tesa child past the more
they supposedly had developed their
intelligence and the scale was
administered to children between the
ages of two and twelve and they found
that the test one through six could be
passed by most children under the age of
two but children were Slyder
rhod retardation could pass somewhere
all these tests but severe retardation
could not most of the tests between
seven and fifteen could be passed by
normal children two to five years old
but with increasing severity of mental
retardation fear of these tests could be
passed and then finally test 16 through
30 could be routinely passed by normal
children between the ages of 5 and 12
with children with even slight
retardation had a great difficulty with
them and children with moderate and
severe retardation usually could pass
none so you get the idea of how this is
working they're working on it so that
they kind of assume that there's a
development of the the cognate ability
of the child that's changing over time
this is akin to some of the work of John
Dewey that we talked about at the last
lecture how do ii didn't believe that
the child's brain was like me no I'm
ready it's just an empty adult brain
that needed information put into it
they're really showing that the
intellectual ability of the child
changes as the child gets older but
within each age group you could kind of
tell the difference between kids who
were typical and those kids that would
they called suboptimal in 1908 they
revised this scale and their goal now is
to go beyond simply distinguishing
normal children from children with
retardation
- perhaps distinguishing among levels of
intelligence for normal children so the
tests were administered to a large
number of normal children from the ages
of 3 to 13 if 75% or more of the
children of a certain age passed a
particular test the test was designed to
that age level for example most most
four-year-old children could copy a
square but they couldn't copy a diamond
and more specifically it was found that
only a minority of three-year-olds could
copy a square when a majority of
four-year-olds could copy a square but
essentially all five-year-olds could so
if a five-year-old child passed only the
test typically passed by four years olds
but not at five-year-olds he was she was
he or she was thought to have below
average intelligence and this revised
scale had 58 different tests in it the
1911 revision of the test included more
normative data about adults who were
actually people in there who were 15
years old and provided exactly five
tests for each age level and this
allowed a score where you could get
something but scored between one and
five for each of the different year
gradations
now Bonet warned etics with extreme
caution should be taken in interpreting
a child's intellectual age children
whose intellectual age was two or more
years behind their chronological age
could probably have trouble in a
standard school program it would need
special attention but even in the latter
cases poor test performance did not
necessarily mean that the child had
mental deficiencies before such a label
is applied the tests administer
administrator had to ensure that the
child was healthy and motivated when he
or she took the test and that he or she
was acknowledgeable enough about French
culture to understand the reflections of
that culture on the test so these are
sort of modern warnings that we give
right now when we talk about different
kinds of intelligence tests so it's
pretty remarkable that you know more
than 100 years ago Binet and Simone had
these same ideas with their scale now
what happened next it was a German
psychologist a guy named William Stern
who introduced the term mental age and
he also suggested that the mental age be
divided by one's chronological age and
this would indeed yield something called
an intelligence quotient or an IQ so it
was Stern who came up with this formula
you take your mental age that was
defined by passing these different tests
that banana' Simone had and then you
would divide that by your chronological
age and multiply it by a hundred so if
your mental age was exactly where your
chronicle chronological age was like you
are 10 and you're performing at the 10
range then you would have a i q-- of a
hundred right because it'd be one over
one I'm sorry ten over ten divided by
100 or a hundred so the IQ of a score
that's higher than a hundred supposed to
represent somebody whose mental age is
more advanced over their chronological
age somebody who has an IQ less than 100
as a mental age is behind with a
chronological age now Sterne developed
that and Binet was opposed to the use of
this quotient he believed that
intelligence was too complex to be
resentment represented by a simple term
or number and what happened though of
course was that Stern's
formula was easy and sort of won out
over Benes opposition and for more
complex approach so you can see here
that this is kind of a something we
still talk about today in terms of IQs
there's clubs that are based on your IQ
scores and so on but any event Binet and
Simone's test was popular adopted and it
was used throughout most of the world by
the beginning of World War one
it had been translated into a lot of
different languages the final thing I
wanted to mention about Binet instead he
really didn't believe that intelligence
was fixed he thought there was a certain
amount of change ability to it and he
said if we consider that intelligence is
not a single function indivisible and of
a particular essence but rather that it
is formed by the chorus of all the
little functions of discrimination
observation retention etc the plasticity
and extensibility of which have been
determined it will appear undeniable
that the same law governs the whole and
its parts and that consequently anyone's
intelligence is susceptible to being
developed he believed that with practice
training and above all method we managed
to increase our attention our memory our
judgment and literally to become more
intelligent than we were before
improvement goes on in this way until
the time we reach our limit so this gave
a lot of weight to the argument that we
could still do a lot of work maybe even
if you do identify some children as
being special-needs children that you if
you worked with them properly and did
the right kind of training they could
actually improve their intelligence they
get still they weren't stuck in whatever
their bin was they're based on these
scores and so it had a lot more
flexibility to it if you kind of look to
the present this is sort of an idea that
you find in the work of Carol Dweck and
this is just from an article that was
published in 2007 about her work she
says here beliefs about intelligence
play a key role in children's motivation
to learn as well as their achievement in
school and she discovered that parent
students who believe that their
intelligence is fixed and cannot be
expanded tend to
less effort in school and me more maybe
more likely to give up when things get
tough she says they are less likely to
be fully engaged in school and perform
to their potential she said but students
who believe that intelligence can be
expanded that it isn't predetermined or
fixed tend to remain fully engaged even
when the work is hard for them and it's
sort of kind of makes intuitive sense in
the sense that if you are like Binet and
you believe that you could use certain
kinds of exercises and training to
improve your intelligence no matter what
your original intelligence was tested at
you're gonna believe then it's got more
expandability here it's not so fixed and
you're going to be able to possibly stay
more engaged with stuff at school but if
you strongly believe that you just stuck
with whatever your intelligence is it's
fixed then you might want to give up
sooner and therefore not try as hard for
certain things that challenge you all
right so that's I think kind of an
interesting way that you see a link from
the present back to the past
the next individual I would talk about
briefly here is Charles Spearman you
actually know his name for taking a
course in statistics we learned about
correlation like the Spearman Spearman's
correlation now he was an English
psychologist and he administered various
examinations to groups of children and
then he turned attention to correlations
among these test scores so you can see
he came to psychology at the age of 34
he had done work with Dalton and again
member Colton wasn't actually at a
university but he was very much
influenced by Galton's and ways of
measuring intelligence and using the
statistics that he developed with Dalton
about things like regression to
understand how all these factors work
together
he was eventually offered a position at
the University of London in 1904 I think
that's the University of College London
and in University College of London and
then he started doing this work on
correlations and he basically developed
the beginnings of factor analysis that
we use today so he would just take the
correlations among all these different
tests and try to see which things kind
of went together which ones didn't and
end up from his ended up from his
statistical analysis that he postulated
that there were two factors of
intelligence when he called specific
factors
and another one called the general
factor so he assumed that the absence of
a correlation between some test and
something else
showed you that you had a specific
factor and so you might be really good
at one particular kind of intelligence
but it has nothing to do with your
overall general intelligence so your one
kind of thing might be that you're
really good at memory or that you have a
really good reaction time or something
like that but that might not actually
correlate very well with your overall
intelligence your overall intelligence
is your general factor your G and so he
thought of intelligence as consisting of
both G and s and he believed to be s
characteristic of simple tasks and G to
be more characteristic of complex tasks
that would involve lots of different
abilities so this contrasted with the
more commonly held opinion probably
because of the work on IQ that
intelligence was unitary and so people
immediately started to work on him so
you can contrast that with Binet in the
sense that he he thinks that there's
sort of a unitary nature of intelligence
and then he also talked a lot more about
inheritance of intelligence and
interestingly what happened was that
because of Stern's work on the quotient
IQ quotient and his talk about what he
called the general factor of G that IQ
that Spearman had come up I'm sorry that
Stern had come up with became synonymous
with G this notion of Spearman's so
again what I'm trying to say here is
that Binet you know probably thought of
all the stuff is being really
complicated and would like to talk about
all of your tests and all the different
scores that you had he didn't really
like having a single number or two or
three numbers to describe a child's
intelligence but Stern had come up with
this sort of easy way to come up with
one number for your IQ and because
Spearman believed that we had an overall
underlying sort of intelligence where
all these things sort of correlated
together
what did correlate together would be the
general factor or the G that that must
be what the IQ is actually measuring so
that's how these two things became sort
of synonymous has been like that for the
last 100 years
next first time I talked about is Henry
Goddard and just say a little bit about
him he he had he worked in to various
different kinds of schools and when he
yeah so I'm sorry when he went and so in
1888 in Vineland New Jersey this New
Jersey training school for feeble-minded
girls and boys had opened up so in 1888
you have the feeble-minded girls and
boys school and when its director quit
Goddard was asked to take it over and
Goddard liked it because he wanted to
use it as a laboratory to do research so
he actually became the director of the
laboratory in 1906 because of G Stanley
Hall whom he had done his degree with so
Goddard had actually received his PhD in
psyched for mark deb-deb
so our next person is Henry Goddard
countered had received his PhD in
psychology from Clark University in 1899
he was one of G Stanley Hall students
Goddard like most of his peers at the
time had no prior experience with mental
retardation and so what happened was he
got this job because he because of his
connections to G Stanley Hall he took
over as the directory of the laboratory
in 1906 of this New Jersey training
school now the New Jersey training
school in Vineland New Jersey was
actually a school for feeble-minded
girls and boys boys and girls that
seemed to have some sort of mental
retardation so he gets this job to go to
Vineland to test these kids and develop
sort of like an observation of them
almost like to do research on them and
because like I said he didn't have much
experience with mental retardation he
just started using the same cord of sort
of laboratory tests that other people
had used he soon found out that it was
unsuccessful using these kind of brass
instrument tests so he consulted with
several eminent American psychologists
and found that none of them
really help them so he said that after
two years my work was so poor I had
accomplished so little that I went
abroad to see if I could get some ideas
and he went off to Europe and he came
back with the Binet Simone scales and he
translated them into English and started
giving these tests to his kids that were
at this violin school and so he started
to talk about how there were different
levels of substandard or sub levels of
intelligence from the normal
intelligence and he's the person who
coined the term a so if you ever
hear anybody used to word it was
actually Goddard who talked about
in fact if you look it up in the
Wikipedia they say is a term once
used in psychology should note a mild
intellectual disability so sort of in
between average intelligence and mental
retardation was somebody who was a
and you can see here it was coined in
eighteen 1910 by him but it was used to
describe a person with a mental age and
adulthood of between 8 and 12 on the
Binet scale and it was once applied to
people had an IQ of 50 170 being
superior and one degree to imbecile and
superior in two degrees to idiot the
word along with others included
idiotic and basilic stupid and feeble
minded and these were all considered
valid descriptors in the psychology
community that's now nobody who would
use this these words now in psychology
now although Binet and Goddard
corresponded they apparently never did
actually meet personally Goddard first
learned about the scale when he was in
Russel Brussels and he then came back
and like I said use this scale with East
American psychologists he gave it to 400
patients of the Vineland scale and then
compared to the ratings by the school
teachers and the staff members and he
noted that even in cases of disagreement
the test results agreed with the opinion
at least one or more of the Raiders and
this led him to believe that these tests
were actually valid so he translates the
scale into English he coins the term
and this to the English versions
of these scales then get start to be
passed around among the American
psychology community and he actually
becomes quite important then around the
turn of the century when the government
the United States
besides that they're going to test
immigrants that are coming into the
country and they've basically passed
laws they're not going to let people in
who are too low and their intelligence
so he advises the government about which
tests to give to people who are coming
into the country and as a result of
these tests these people might be sent
back to their home country would not be
allowed to enter the United States as a
later become a citizen so Goddard was
quite influential on that he also was
very interested in issues about mental
retardation and he called his group the
feeble-minded Club again this is a
perfectly acceptable - acceptable term
back then calling people who were below
average intelligence feeble-minded and
so you can see here is the meeting of
the feeble-minded club and Goddard is
there in the front row in the center and
then these are the other people around
him who also are interested in the same
topic you'll notice that in the back row
on the far right the guy with his hair
parted in the middle his name is Lewis
Terman
and we're gonna be talking about German
next Lewis Terman
was obsessed with intelligence he had
deep sympathy for the gifted
particularly so he was more interested
in the upper end of this continuum and
he was interested he I think probably
because he identified with the yearnings
and frustrations of children who were
more gifted this likely goes back to his
childhood in rural Indiana where he was
the twelfth of 14 kids that were born in
a prosperous farming family his he
preferred intellectual games and reading
over sports or other outdoor play but he
felt physically outclassed by his
playmates back then few farm kids would
stay in school past the eighth grade but
ermine was officially ambitious for more
education and so that drive fuelled by
taking out some loans from his family
led him to go to the local teacher's
college and then to Indiana University
and finally to Clark University which by
then was a top flight school for
psychological research he completed his
PhD dissertation comparing the mental
and physical abilities as smart and dull
children kind of made me reflecting some
of his interest from his own childhood
at that time psychology had just
established itself as a separate
discipline from philosophy at that
at that you know as I as we mentioned
before he suffered from recurring
tuberculosis and he moved in 1905 to the
more better climate of Southern
California with his wife Anna and they
had these two children Fred and Helen
and for the next five years he worked as
a high school principal and then as a
professor of pedagogy at a Teachers
College in 1910 Stanford offered him a
job in its fledgling Department of
Education he later moved to the
psychology department which he became
the chair for 20 years he was eager to
measure human minds and he plunged into
intelligence testing soon after he
arrived at Stanford the original
intelligence test had been designed by
Binet and it was used as a way to
identify slow children Turman and his
Stanford colleagues translated this test
adapted its content to US schools and
then came up with new kind of age norms
and standardizations
so that the mean score would always be
100 on the test and he called this the
new version of of the test the
stanford-binet test which is still
actually used today on this test you'd
have questions ranging from mathematical
problems to vocabulary items and this
Americanized test was supposed to
capture general intelligence the G again
that Spearman had talked about he was a
hardcore believer in heredity and he
believed that genetics alone dictated
one's level of general intelligence this
vital constant which he called an
original endowment was an altered by
education or home environment or hard
work he believed that your intelligence
was just inherited so he talked about
the IQ in 1916 he sprang the
stanford-binet test on America he
released this book called the
measurement of intelligence which was a
book that was half instruction manual
and half an IQ test and also had a
manifesto there about universal testing
his little exam which a child could
complete in about 15 minutes was about
to revolutionize what students learned
and how they thought of themselves few
American children passed through this
school system in the next 80 years
without taking the stanford-binet or one
of its competitors termas tests gave us
educators the first simple quick cheap
and seemingly objective way
to attract students or sorry to attract
students or to assign them to different
courses parent according to their
ability the following year when the
United States entered World War one he
helped design the test to screen army
recruits more than 1.7 million draftees
took these tests and how you down on the
test would determine what job you got in
the military during the war so if you
became a front aligned infantryman that
might because you had a lower score on
the test if you higher score the test
you might become an officer
so the stanford-binet made him a leader
in this movement about Meza measuring
and remember I read or he told you that
Americans have really interested in the
abilities of kids and so on so
everybody's interested in being tested
they thought that talent intelligence
was probably the most valuable human
quality and so they their goal the
people who were around Turman was to
test every child and adult to determine
their place the Society and so a lot of
these intelligence testers are actually
you Genesis and so they saw this as a
tool that they could use to help
engineer a fairer safer fitter more
efficient nation where people could be
assigned to the proper jobs based on
their scores on the stanford-binet test
so the IQ just kind of really took off
as this important determinant of
everything that everybody was going to
do now as a result of this work on
intelligence he began this other study
in the 1920s a study of genius and when
he was really interested in it it's like
looking at what would happen if you
could identify children at a young age
who were at the Genius level on the IQ
test on his stanford-binet test to see
what would happen to them so this test
was called the genetics study of genius
and it was begun in 1921 the students
were about 11 years old when they first
did this and what they did is they went
around different elementary schools in
Los Angeles San Francisco and Northern
California and they came up with a group
of children who eventually had IQs of
135 or higher he also had other children
who were like control participants but
by the time that his said he really took
he had 1528 people between the ages of 3
and 28 that were all really high on the
IQ test so they were all geniuses as a
group they were overall whelmingly oh
sorry overwhelmingly white they were
urban in their were middle class nearly
all of them lived in California there
were more boys than girls so there were
eight hundred fifty six boys 672 girls
this puzzled termined for the rest of
his life he he wasn't really sure you
understood why there'd be more boys that
were genius and girls
perhaps boys were actually smarter kinda
like going back to the ideas of Broca or
maybe the teachers were more likely to
recommend them to participate in the
study but he never really got that
figured out
there were other ways that they were
lopsided in that there were only two
african-americans six japanese-americans
and one American Indian in the study
they were tested every five years or so
so they were given the stanford-binet or
the recent most recent version of the
stanford-binet and tracked every five
years for as long as they could run the
study and as of 2003
the last time I can find anybody really
talking about the study there were still
about 200 of these people alive so there
have been some articles written about
this the people that were in the study
were called termites because they were
Germans students our two men term ins
participants in his big study so you can
see here for instance there's an article
in New York Times seventy-five years
later the study is still tracking
geniuses so they had this nice
longitudinal study where they could see
what happened at these genius kids at
the time of this article is written the
termites were in their 80s so I'm sure
that there's probably nobody alive left
from that particular sample but anyway
they were looking at these traits that
they had measured and what happened in
terms of their longevity in terms of
their jobs and so on here's another
article about the the termites that the
termites in the determined study
published in 2009 and this is again
talking about some of the differences if
you look at this particular paragraph it
says here his final group of termites
averaged a whopping on a key of 151
following up his group 35 years later
his gifted group at midlife definitely
seen
to conform to his expectations they were
taller healthier physically better
developed and socially adept and as
described in his 35 year follow-up his
group had an impressive array of
accomplishments of just the gifted males
Germans initial group consisted of 857
males
70 had earned listings in American men
of science which by the way I got to
point out to you was started by Raymond
Cattell three were elected to the
National Academy of Sciences 10 had
entries in the directory of American
scholars and 31 appeared in Who's Who in
America and the list goes on so what he
was trying to show is that these
termites were much more successful than
the rest of the population so this
intelligence was linked it intelligence
measure at the age of 11 was Amit was
linked to their success in later life
there have been other studies like this
that kind of showed similar things for
instance here's a study that was
published in 2009 the accomplishments
across individual differences with the
top 1% of general cognitive ability and
the way they're measuring intelligence
here is using a popular test that's
given in America called the SAT - they
give it to people at the age of 13 which
isn't normally when you get the SAT and
then they follow them up over subsequent
decades and you can see that the people
who are in the top quartile the top 25%
or in this case the top 1% of general
cognitive ability we're much more likely
to have doctorates much more likely to
publish in stem journals and have
patents and so on there's still papers
coming out from this data set this one I
found from 2017 this is looking at
income differences among grade skippers
and non-graded skippers in the terminus
ample so it's a very large database and
I'm not sure exactly how you get access
to it but lots of researchers published
from it this particular study is trying
to show that the kids that were in this
study who were allowed to skip a grade
you know so they went from like year
three to year five we're more likely to
do better in their later life in terms
of their success and that's probably
because the idea is that since they were
so much smarter or brighter than the
rest of the kids in their class letting
them go ahead a year skipping a year put
them in a intellectual environment that
was more suitable to their intelligence
now here's the other thing that's
interesting about Herman Herman was also
like I said strongly believed in
inherited inheritance of these qualities
that the termites and others were gifted
had and so he had a lot of connections
to the eugenics movement and in recent
years in California people are now more
aware of this there was a school in the
near Stanford called Turman middle
school so it was named after Herman and
also his son who became a professor and
head of Stanford University so it was
called terminal school for both the
father and the son but people discovered
that termen was doing this work and
talking about intelligence 100 years
before and it was something that was
brought up in the eugenics movement and
so people felt uncomfortable sending
their child to a school named Herman
middle school so there was a big uproar
and the school was changed its name just
there in 2018 where you can see the term
in middle school is now going to be
named in honor of Ellen Fletcher and
there was another school there called
Jordan and Jordan was another person who
worked with German and also was
considered a eugenicist and said that
school was also renamed to the Frank
Green jr. study so I'm sorry the Frank
Green jr. school so you can see that
again history is alive and well we here
we are in 2018 and still people are
showing up to a crowded hall there to
discuss the changing of a school's name
because these old psychologists had done
things that were related to the huge
nx-- movement the next person in today's
lecture also did testing but what's also
interesting about him is that he
basically started what's called clinical
psychology his name is Lightner Whitmer
Whitmer was born in Philadelphia his
father was a successful pharmacist his
family was a strong believer in
education all three children two boys
and a girl all earned their doctoral
degrees Lightner got his PhD from
Leipzig his brother got an MD and his
sister also got an MD Whitmer entered
the University of Pennsylvania in 1884
and graduated in 1880
eight he was an outstanding
undergraduate and after receiving his
bachelor's he took a position teaching
history and English at Rugby Academy a
secondary school in Philadelphia and he
stayed there for two years and during
this time also he took some classes in
law at the University of Pennsylvania
because he was thinking about becoming a
lawyer but during his second year at
rugby he started taking classes in
political science at the University and
sometime during that he transferred to
psychology and this was due in part to
the fact that in this year James McKeen
Cattell had joined the Pennsylvania
faculty and Whitmer started working with
Cattell and was offered an assistantship
for the following year so you resign his
position at rugby and entered graduate
school full-time cattell put Whitmer to
work gathering data on individual
differences in reaction times at that
point Whitmer expected to abstain as
obtained his doctorate there from
Pennsylvania receiveth with cattell but
cattell left to go to Columbia in 1891
it was agreed that Whitmer would go to
Leipzig to work on his doctor with a
bunch and if it's successful then he
could come back over and take over the
come back to the United States and take
over the Pennsylvania laboratory so at
Leipzig Whitmer not only took courses
with lunch but he also started to study
with aswad Coppola and several other
people Tichenor was another of one's
students at this time and so you got to
know Tichenor Whitmer's dissertation was
on the aesthetic values of varying
proportions wouldn´t was known to
discourage and even prohibit the study
of interesting differences in the
laboratory but somehow Whitmer was able
to give considerable attention to these
individual differences in his thesis and
he offers some speculations as to the
tournament though that determinants of
such differences when he returned from
Europe in 1892 at the age of 25 he was
perceived and he probably no doubt
perceived himself a strict experimental
psychologist in this new mold during his
first few years on the Pennsylvania
faculty he taught courses carried out
research and presented papers in
experimental psychology in fact his last
paper of a strictly experimental type
was on sick of psycho physics and
appeared as late as 1905 for several
years he conducted research on
individual differences in sensory
perception Bayer
Abel's even more interested to him in
this period was the psychological
aspects of pain now remember that the
APA you might remember this was founded
in 1892 and Whitmer along with such
other early figures as G Stanley Hall
William James and Cattell were among its
charter members and its first annual
meeting took place at the University of
Pennsylvania in December of that year
and that's where Whitmer read two papers
one on the aesthetics of visual form
which was his dissertation topic topic
and another one on the individual
differences in reaction time in 1894 the
university organized a special series on
courses for public school teachers and
he became involved in these courses and
in March 1896 one of the students in
this class discussed with him the
problem of one of her students a
fourteen year old boy who was having
extreme difficulty learning to spell
even though he seemed quite able in some
subjects the youth was referred to by
Whitmer as Charles gilman his teacher
was Margaret McGuire a dedicated woman
who was also a psychology student at the
University in the words of Whitmer she
was quote imbued with the idea that a
psychologist should be able through
examination to ascertain the causes of a
deficiency in spelling and to recommend
the appropriate pedagogical treatment
for its amelioration or cure unquote
this attitude was strictly in accord
with his own point of view he reasoned
that that it was just probably a simple
developmental defect in memory and
memory is a mental process in which the
science of psychology is supposed to be
furnishing authoritative knowledge and
so it appeared to him that if psychology
was worth anything that it should be
able to assist this kind of case so he
examined Charles at length and worked
out a systematic program for him in his
preliminary examination he concluded
that the boy had above average
intelligence showed good powers of
reasoning and expressed himself well in
spoken language however his reading
ability was deficient as a spelling for
example he would would read the word was
lwas as saw s.a.w
the only words that he could recognize
his sight were a few mono syllables such
as the and an all the other words he had
to examine letter by letter and tried to
combine the letters sounds before he
could pronounce them however he had no
difficulty remembering the sounds of
different letters and he had excellent
visual memory for geometric figures and
even for separate letters though not for
words he was good at drawing and he did
very well in history and science so in
the fall of 1896 he began a program with
Charles trying to find some sort of
technique that he could use with him his
underlying problem appeared to be an
inability to fix in his memory the form
of words a condition that he designated
as visual verbal amnesia this intense
remedial work continued through weekly
visits to the clinic and almost daily
instruction by the boy's teacher and the
aim was to teach Charles through
persistent practice to recognize words
without having to spell them first
these efforts gradually showed some
success and the work was terminated in
April 1897 but Charles continued with
these exercises at home although he
never learned to read in a normal manner
his proficiency did reach the point
where was some difficulty he could read
ordinary material Whitmer lasts some on
July 9th 1903 and at this time
Charles was physically ill of
tuberculosis and had been compelled to
withdraw from school and he died of TB
in January of 1907 but if you were to
kind of look at his affliction that he
had that brought him to see Whitmer in
the first place you would probably
categorize it as a learning disability
and perhaps be diagnosis dyslexia or
some sort of developmental reading
disorder during the spring of 1896 he
also examined several other children who
referred to him Whitmer hired a few
local teachers to assist him in his
clinical work and he saw 26 cases that
year
most of the referrals were from schools
with some from medical settings parents
were also involved the most general
cause of referral was some concern that
they had over the child's developmental
progress either in some specific sense
like speech development motor
development or they had a learning
problem or perhaps they might have had
some sort of retardation so by the late
1890s
Whitmer was supervising graduate
students of his own including Anna
McKeague who wrote her dissertation on
pain perception in nineteen 202 and was
one of the first women to receive a
psychology PhD in America
the other student was edwin twit meyer
who studied the knee reflex for his
dissertation and in the process
discovered independently a pavlov what
would later call the conditioned reflex
and he presented his dissertation
results to the APA now in 1905 and
nobody really paid much attention now
one of the things that he did once he
started this clinic was he started a
journal called the psychological clinic
and it ran for several decades until
1935 and it was the leading and in fact
the only clinical psychology journal and
was instrumental in promoting and
defining this new profession called
clinical psychology
it would include research reports
theoretical articles case studies book
reviews and various notes and news items
there wasn't there were other journals
like for instance the journal abnormal
psychology but they tended to kind of
focus on case studies whereas this
journal the psychological clinic was
more directly focused on diagnosis and
treatment so you have really the
beginnings of clinical psychology here
where the clinic is really focused
mainly on learning disorders at the
beginning in 1908 he established a
residential school near Wallingford
Pennsylvania for the care and treatment
of and troubled children and
this factory indicates that by this time
he was developing a private practice
perhaps the first by a clinical
psychologist in addition to his
University duties he was actually seeing
people outside the university and that
sameera published he published an
extensive criticism what he believed to
be essentially fraudulent and
unscientific mental health movements and
in the course of this discussion
he even criticized William James who he
thought was doing on scientific things
by looking at it hypnotism and seances
and mysticism and he described James as
the spoiled child of American psychology
and so because of that he became more
and more estranged from the mainstream
psychology establishment still he had
his clinic and his clinics included
extensive training for students in this
basically became the first training
programs postgraduate programs in
clinical psychology so he spent the rest
of his career there at Pennsylvania he
retired at the in 1937 at the age of 70
and he died at the age of 89
was the last of the surviving charter
members of the American Psychological
Association but you can see in the slide
by the way is over on the left is by
1935 when the journal ended he they had
sent out a questionnaire asking all the
different clinics that existed in
America at that time they were look over
a hundred of them to kind of talk about
who was on the staff and what their
activities were and if you look down
there near the center of the page you
can see that for this clinic the one
that Lightner Whitman ran he says the
reasons why they were what they were
seeing people for and they by the way
went from the ages of one year old to
adult they looked at conduct problems
educational problems neglect problems
placement problems educational
vocational guidance problems mental
defects and abnormalities superior
children speech defects determination of
mental status within the normal range
and personality problems and then they
got these these referrals from schools
and hospitals and social agencies so
interestingly again to see that he these
topics that he's covering are are things
that are just sort of new they have a
lot of practical benefit people need
these services made available to the
kids and two adults that have these
sorts of problems and so we thus have
this new clinical psychology that sort
of really hand-in-hand with education
because a lot of its pedagogy where
they're trying to help these people
learn to become more proficient whatever
that is that they're having a disability
about so we'll come back of course to
talking more about clinical psychology
at a later lecture the last thing I want
to do today is talk about two more
notable women in psychology at this time
and I recommend at this point that if
you ever have a chance that you look for
this book called untold lives the first
generation of American women
psychologist by two historians
Elizabeth Scarborough and Laurel for a
furry motel they do a really excellent
job here profiling several women around
this time period including the two of
them about to talk about now one of the
things that they kind of point out early
in the book is just trying to give you a
good idea of the context that women
who wanted to study psychology and then
become professional people in psychology
had to face this is sort of a kind of a
two sort of big beliefs that they had to
face so the women at the 19th century
beginning of the 20th century had two
kind of beliefs that were believed by
society one was called the periodic
function and this was the belief that
women were intellectually incapacitated
every month during menstruation so yes
people actually believed that women were
intellectually incapacitated while their
menstruating and then the other
hypothesis that a lot of scientists
believed in was what's called the
variability hypothesis was that men
showed more variability in their
intelligence so therefore their curve
was spread out more then the woman's
abilities were now it mean that the
brightest man would always be more
intelligent than the brightest women so
these two beliefs caused a lot of
barriers for women who wanted to go on
in to get a higher education despite
these barriers Oh some opportunities
arose in the second half of the 19th
century and part of this was due to the
fact that colleges and universities
started to allow women in to teach -
sorry - become students at first the
things that they were taught were home
economics oh that is they were meant to
come to the University or to the College
to learn about how to sew how to be a
good cook how to raise children but
later on they decided that women needed
to be teachers because as they started
having compulsory education across the
United States they needed to educate
women to become teachers and so they
opened up colleges training schools just
for women so they could learn to become
teachers Ivy League schools like Harvard
and Yale resisted the efforts to have
women enrolled at their particular
colleges but they compromised by
creating women's schools that would be
affiliated with the men's such as what
one of them was called the Harbin annex
that later became Radcliffe College but
the best opportunities for women really
came with the creation of a new
educational phenomenon and these were
elite colleges that were created for
women only
such as Vassar College in 1865 mathur
vast Matthew Vassar had endured the
endowed this College with
money he wrote because it occurred to
him that women having received from the
Creator the same intellectual
Constitution as man has the same right
as man to intellectual culture and
development that's very progressive of
him other colleges were similarly set up
by philanthropists like Smith in 1871
Wellesley in 1875 Bryn Mawr in 1885 by
1901 there were 119 of these women's
colleges in the United States so now you
had women who were getting educated in
these colleges at the same time as these
colleges popped up who is going to teach
the women there it seemed more
appropriate at women's college that
women would be the teachers or the
professor's so that required that women
wouldn't have to go and get PhDs or some
sort of advanced training so they could
actually teach at these different
women's colleges so that's actually
where these two women kind of come up
one of them was christine Ladd Franklin
she was born in Connecticut and during
her early childhood she lived with her
parents her dad was a merchant and she
had a younger brother Henry and then
they moved to when they moved they she
also had a sister the family correspond
shows that they're that the mother and
her sisters were all staunch supporters
of women's rights even at a young age
before she had celebrated her fifth
birthday her mother had taken her to a
lecture given by Elizabeth oak Smith a
well known proponent of women's rights
and additionally her father was a
graduate professor who was supportive of
Christine's efforts now following the
death of her mother in 1860 of pneumonia
Ladd went to live with her paternal
grandmother in Portsmouth New Hampshire
where she attended school her father
remarried in 1862 and had and she had a
half sister Catherine and a half brother
George she was a precocious child who
sought to find a mean to continue her
education beyond secondary school and
her wish was granted when her father
enrolled her in a two-year program at a
co-educational Academy in Massachusetts
and she took the same courses that
prepared boys they were planning to go
on to Harvard in 1865 she graduated from
there as the valedictorian or the ducks
and made the decision to pursue further
education at Vassar
College so this was again supported by
her family
so in 1866 she went off to Vassar on a
based on a loan from her aunt she only
studied to Vassar until the end of the
spring term due to financial issues
during the time that she was not
attending college she worked as a public
schoolteacher until her aunt's aid
allowed her to reenter and graduate in
1869 while she was attending vaster she
began working under the mentorship of
astronomy professor a woman named Maria
Mitchell who was famous for having been
the first woman to discover a new
comment using a telescope in 1847
Mitchell was also a suffragette and she
strode to inspiring women to gain more
self-confidence in order to succeed in
male-dominated fields during this period
under the guidance of Mitchell she was
able to blossom and quickly developed a
love for the fields of physics and
mathematics since women in the 19th
century were now allowed in the
male-dominated Physics Laboratory she
was unable to pursue her first love of
physics and chose instead to study
mathematics later in life she would
eventually reflect back on her decision
and say had it not been for the
impossibility in those days in the case
of women of obtaining access to
laboratory facilities she would have
eagerly gone on to study physics in 1878
she was accepted into Johns Hopkins
University with the help of James
Sylvester was an English mathematician
who remembered some of her earlier works
her application for the university
fellowship was signed C dot Ladd and
Hopkins offered the fellowship to her
without realizing she was a woman when
they did realize this the board moved to
revoke the offer but Sylvester insisted
that Ladd should be his student and so
she was and she held a fellowship at
Hopkins for three years but the trustees
did not allow her name to be printed in
the circulars with those of the other
fellows for fear of setting a precedent
furthermore there was a lot of
dissension of her continued president's
presence in the classes so it forced one
of the original trustees to resign since
Johns Hopkins did not really approve of
co-education she was initially allowed
only in classes that were taught by
Sylvester but after displaying
exceptional work in his courses she was
allowed to take courses with different
professors and even though she was just
awarded a stipend she was known as a
fellow during 1879 to 1880
two classes with charles sanders peirce
we've been called the first you know
philosopher psychologist and when we
talked about last week she wrote her
dissertation on the algebra of logic
with Pierce a soar thesis advisor the
dissertation was published in studies in
logic in 1883 and she became the first
woman really to receive formal graduate
instruction in both men that mathematics
and symbolic logic since women were not
allowed to graduate though from Hopkins
she was refused her PhD although she was
the first woman to complete all the
requirements for a PhD at Hopkins
however Hopkins eventually got around to
granting her a PhD in 1927 44 years
after she had earned it when she was now
78 she in 1884 married a fellow
classmate for a guy named Fabian Frankel
who got his PhD in mathematics and so
she then became Christine Ladd -
Franklin she had two children one of
whom died in infancy
the other Margaret let Franklin became a
prominent member in the women's suffrage
movement she often wrote of this
injustice that she observed in the
oppression of the female sex in 1893 she
attempted to pursue a teaching position
at Johns Hopkins but she was denied and
despite the setback she remained
persistent and she determined and she
never actually was able to secure a
regular academic position because she
was married that is in order to be able
to be hired as a teacher at a university
or even at a school you had to be single
and because she was married with a child
she was not allowed to have a regular
academic position if 11 years later in
1904 she was at least given permission
to teach one class per year and for the
next five years her position at Johns
Hopkins had to be approved and renewed
on a yearly basis all the way up until
1909 women who were fortunate enough to
obtain academic positions in
universities at this time often chose
these positions despite their lack of
compensation so she was no different
from that many of the teaching positions
that she held were on a volunteer basis
which created a substantial financial
strain on her and her family but she
placed a high value in all this so she
became a successful contributor to the
field
I just should have say before we move on
here that one of her major contributions
that she made to psychology was her
theory of color vision which was based
on evolution LAT Franklin noted that
some animals are colorblind and assumed
that the achromatic vision appeared
first in evolution and that color vision
must have come later she assumed further
that the human eye carries fragments of
its earlier elevation evolutionary
development she observed that the most
highly evolved part of the eye is the
fovea where at least in daylight the
visual acuity and color sensitivity are
greatest
she assumed that peripheral vision which
was provided by the rods of the retina
was more primitive than foveal vision
because night vision and movement
detection were crucial for survival so
she was really showing how color vision
was linked on this evolutionary
dimension I'm gonna mention at the end
of this in a few minutes her battle with
Tichenor and Tichenor sexism especially
when it came to the experimentalist but
before I do that I wanted to do one more
person and that's Margaret Floyd
Washburn who lived from 1871 to 1939 she
was born in New York City she was raised
in Harlem by her father Francis who was
an Episcopal priest and her mother
Elizabeth Loy it became a prosper came
from a prosperous New York family she
was an only child she did not appear to
have childhood companions her age and
spent much of her time with adults or
reading she learned to read long before
she started school this caused her to
advance quickly when she started school
at age 7 and school she learned French
and German and when she was 11 years old
she started at a public school for the
first time in 1886 she graduated from
high school at the age of 15 and that
fall she entered Vassar College she was
only a minute as a preparatory student
because she hadn't taken enough Latin in
French but during this time she
developed a strong interest in
philosophy through poetry and other
literary works and she was finally
introduced to the field of psychology
after she graduated from Vassar in 1891
she became determined to study under
James McKeen Cattell and his new
psychological laboratory at Columbia but
Columbia wasn't omitting any women
graduate students so she was only
admitted
an auditor of the class so she just sit
in there and not get credit despite the
derogatory feelings towards women
gaining into education at that time
Cattell treated her as a normal student
and became her first mentor she attended
his seminary his lectures and worked in
his lab saw a laboratory alongside the
men at the end of her first year of
admission at Columbia she and curtail
encouraged her to enter the newly
organized sage school of philosophy at
Cornell University to obtain her PhD
because this would not have been
possible at Columbia because she was
just an auditor so she was accepted in
1891 with a scholarship to go to Cornell
so at Cornell she studied under Tichenor
and his became his first and only major
graduate student at that time as a
graduate student she conducted an
experimental study of the methods of
equivalences inte actual perception as
was suggested by her advisor Tichenor
after two semesters of experimental
psychology she subsequently earned her
master's degree from Bastyr in absentia
in the late spring of 1893 during that
time she started working on another
master's thesis which was done on
digital imagery in June 1894 she gave
her oral presentation and became the
first woman to receive a PhD in
psychology from Cornell with Tichenor as
her advisor she was also elected to the
newly established American Psychological
Association her master's dissertation
was also sent by Tichenor to Vilhelm
vote who translated it and published it
in his German philosophical studies in
1895 following her graduation she was
offered the chair of psychology
philosophy and ethics at wells College
and Aurora New York she accepted the
offer and was spent the next six years
there while she was there she would make
sure to visit Cornell to catch up with
her friends and work in the laboratories
however she got tired of that place and
so in 1900 she went to Sage College of
Cornell University and she accepted that
offer and spent the next two years there
and then eventually ended up at the
University of Cincinnati in Cincinnati
Ohio where she took full charge of the
psychology department
but in the spring of 1903 she returned
to Vassar College as an associate
professor philosophy where she remained
the rest of her life when she started
working there she became the head of the
newly found in psychology department she
treated her students well and an intern
they appreciate her as a professor a
large number of her students continue to
advance in the field of psychology after
graduation she published many of her
students studies during her career the
students would collect and work with the
data while she wrote up in published
experiments between the years of 1905 in
1938 she published 68 studies from the
Vassar undergraduate laboratory these
studies were the largest series of
studies from any American University at
the time at one point her students
gifted her with a large sum of money and
they wanted her to be used that money
for leisure instead she used the money
as a scholarship aid to help students in
the psychology department so you can see
some of the other accomplishments on
here that she also published a book on
comparative psychology called the animal
mind in 1908 she had her own motor
theory of consciousness that was akin to
some of those ideas that William James
had had about the important of motor
movements and cognition keep in mind
that in order to have all these jobs
teaching us because she never married
and so being a single woman she was
allowed to have these kind of
occupations she did become the president
of the American Psychological
Association in 1922 and she also had
membership to the National Academy of
Sciences in 1931 so again I mentioned
these two women at this particular time
because their contemporaries with some
of the other people that were doing the
testing stuff I wanting to end this
lecture by talking to you again about
some of the problems that these women
had with people like Tichenor so it's
interesting that Tichenor was Margaret
Floyd Washburn's advisor right but
Tichenor and his colleagues would never
really allow women to be part of the of
the club so they were always excluded
from all sorts of important networks of
scientific psychologists so like for
instance here in 1909 not a single woman
standing in the photograph because they
wouldn't been allowed to participate
even though you had some women who would
have had degrees and could have easily
talked to Freud and Jung another
important group by the way you can see
Tichenor here he's on the front row
second person from the left so he he got
to show up with the people that he was
associated with women were not allowed
to come then even himself he had his
group the experimentalists they started
in 1916 and only men were allowed to
join and part of the reason he argued
was that these men would get together in
smoked cigars and women were not
supposed to smoke cigars and so he
believed that allowing the group to only
be men would allow these men to relax
more and they would have more creative
ideas and they could smoke cigars and
talk and and talk about psychology
without any compunction to have to
behave in a particular way if women are
around it's it's been reported that some
women would actually sneak into these
meetings and hide under the table so
they could listen to the discussion of
the men so that they could kind of keep
up with what was going on the
experimentalists kept going on and on
and on for many decades they also
eventually became the Society of
experimental psychology you can always
see in these photos this here's another
one in 1927 in the University of
Pennsylvania they're all again some of
them are holding on to their cigars one
of his students that was really
important mentioned of titchener's
titchener's the guy in the middle there
with the big white beard off to the
right there in the far right you can see
there's a guy there was a little
mustache that's boring his student who
went on became a professor at Harvard
and wrote these histories of psychology
text so there is boring in the picture
here's another picture of that same
group now known as the Society of
experimental psychologists in 1935 at
Yale and University and finally there's
a woman in the picture and that woman is
Margaret Flo Washburn who seated in the
second row 4th from the left so you can
see her there and the other person that
I can point out again here is boring
boring a city had seated in that second
row down the far right and he's got his
little bowtie and his glasses on and
there's boring but that's the Society of
experimental psychologists and the name
had changed from the experimentalists
after Tichenor had died so this reason
why Tichenor is not in this photo is he
had passed away by this point and now
they were called the Society of
experimental psychologists the Society
of experimental psychologists is still
around is still considered a very
pristine
this organization you have to be voted
on to be in the into this club of this
group you can see here from their
webpage it says there on the third
paragraph the meetings are plenary
involved papers from various members of
society the society currently admits at
least six new members annually from
among the leading experimentalists in
North America so they have to come from
North America it has a current
membership of 220 individuals about 5 to
10% of the practicing experimental
psychologists so in a way what they're
kind of saying is they're only taking
the cream of the crop
the only people are allowed to join the
Society of experimental psychologists
are this top 5 to 10% that are get
avoided in and so if women are not
allowed to join this barely exclusive
club for decades you can kind of see how
that would have an impact then and how
psychology is going to progress and all
these different universities so in fact
if you look at the different photos of
the SCP over the decades you can very
rarely ever see a woman in there it's
not really until you get to the 2000s
that you regularly see women here's a
picture from 2005 and if you look
carefully there you can see maybe seven
women that are in the picture but most
of them again are males then in 2015
they have a few more women here I
thought it's funny is with two guys here
that didn't get into the picture so
they've just kind of cut pasted their
photos in but again there's just a few
handful of women I think this looks most
promising though in 2018 you can see
when they met that there are many more
women in the club now and so now perhaps
they're trying to get close to equity
but again I just want to point out it's
a long time they're from back in the
days when Tichenor originally had this
as a group of guys who hang around with
their cigars and the women have to wait
and hide underneath the tables in order
to catch on to what the conversations
were about it took a long time to get it
to integrated to the point that you see
here in this particular photo so I'll
leave you here with a quote from
Christine Ladd Franklin who kept a
journal throughout most of her life and
she also gave speeches and here she is
giving a speech in 1904 about why there
should be endowed professorships for
women at different universities what
she's doing is she's complaining here a
bit about the fact that women just still
are not allowed to have jobs at top
universities she says that is the case
with our
clever girls they go to Germany and get
the parchments beautifully signed and
sealed that proclaimed them to be
doctors of philosophy but no further
consequences follow they have nothing
but the empty satisfaction of exhibiting
their tickets so they go off to these
European universities and get PhDs in
physics or chemistry or whatever it is
and to come back to the America and they
can't get a job at one of the top
universities because they are a woman or
because they're married so that's just
kind of how Christine led Franklin
talked about it in 1904 so that's all I
have for today's lecture I look forward
to talking to you again at the next
lecture

welcome to lecture 5 of psych 49 81 on

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achromatic vision::noun | Spocien Dictionary

achromatic vision

noun

/,ækrə'mætɪk_'vɪʒən/

vision using the rods

Type	Words
Type of	sight, vision, visual modality, visual sense

Examples of achromatic vision

achromatic vision

Since achromatic vision was the first to evolve it explains why the majority of the population are not affected by black-white color blindness.

From the en.wikipedia.org

How to pronounce achromatic vision in English?

achromatic vision::noun | Spocien Dictionary

abandonment

Related words

Examples of achromatic vision

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